下面為大家整理一篇優(yōu)秀的assignment代寫(xiě)范文-Political corruption in the west，供大家參考學(xué)習(xí)，這篇論文討論了西方的政治腐敗。在西方，利益集團(tuán)為實(shí)現(xiàn)其成員的共同利益而參與政治，其參與方式包括向政黨和政府提供集團(tuán)共同利益的信息并施加壓力，為承諾當(dāng)選后支持集團(tuán)利益的候選人組織選票，為與本集團(tuán)立場(chǎng)相近的政黨提供競(jìng)選資金。雖然政黨與利益集團(tuán)的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)與合作關(guān)系在一定程度上增進(jìn)了政黨政治的穩(wěn)定，實(shí)現(xiàn)了政治與利益的均衡。但政黨是公民控制公共權(quán)力之手的延伸，政黨與利益集團(tuán)之間密切的聯(lián)系，無(wú)疑衍生了政黨活動(dòng)領(lǐng)域特有的腐敗形式。

紐約assignment代寫(xiě)范文

　　Party politics is the priority choice under representative democracy,is an important way to realize democratic politics,and is an indispensable part of modern political civilization.It is therefore hard to imagine how politics in a modern democracy would be achieved without the participation of political parties.From the perspective of reality,party politics has become the most common form of political organization in today's world,except for a small number of traditional small countries and some countries with military dictatorships without political parties.As an organization that tries to occupy government positions to exert its influence in the country,a political party usually contains more than one kind of social interest,and therefore tries to"unite different social interests"to some extent.It not only has the organizational function of expanding political participation and absorbing appeals of public interests,but also undertakes the task of electing candidates,organizing the government through successful elections,transforming the appeals of absorbing and integrating the public into public policies,and realizing the effective governance of the society to meet the needs of public interests.In addition,political parties also play an important role in shaping political identity and integrating ideology and values.Therefore,huntington pointed out:"a country without political parties has no institutionalized means to produce lasting changes and defuse the impact of changes,and its political,economic and social modernization is greatly restricted.That is to say,a political system without political parties is inherently fragile.On the contrary,a modern and highly stable country has at least one strong political party.Interest groups,on the other hand,are groups with a common attitude.They realize the interests of individual groups by influencing the formulation and implementation of public policies.Under a strong political party system,interest groups are subordinate to political parties.However,since the middle of the 20th century,the western modernization has completely changed its social structure,weakened the representative system function of political parties and their social integration ability,and turned the diversified interest demands of the public to interest groups.In the current democratic political process,political parties need financial support from interest groups to make up for the weakening social foundation and win more votes.Interest groups need political parties to formulate and implement public policies to realize the interests of their members,and both of them form a situation of co-existence and co-prosperity.Political parties and interest groups as the main participants in the political market,is the pursuit of self-interest maximization of rationality,the frequent trading power and interests for a long time in the absence of strong institutional regulation will be corruption,public interest into special interest or private interests is legalized,it inevitably reduce the legitimacy of the ruling party base,party politics life threatening.In other words,how to regulate the extra-parliamentary activities of interest groups and reconstruct the relationship between political parties and interest groups will inevitably become the proper meaning of the corruption governance of political parties.

 

　　With the development of social division of labor and specialization,the differentiation of social interests gradually highlights,and different interest groups are formed in the complex social conflicts.Now the interest groups are what the founders of the American republic called factions.James?Madison argues in federalist 10 that factions are bound together by some common interest or emotion,whether it be the majority or the minority of all citizens,whose interests conflict with the rights of other citizens or the long-term and general interests of society.The most common and lasting root cause of factional existence is the diversification and inequality of property distribution.The potential cause of factional existence is human nature,because people are born with the pursuit of self-interest.From the perspective of the origin of interest groups,the following aspects are the main inducement for the rise of interest groups and their becoming the dominant force in party politics.

 

　　The social structural changes brought about by modernization and information technology revolution led to the emergence of a large number of middle class and stimulated the diversification of social interest demands.The change of social structure,social interest integration inevitably brought,the middle class gradually expansion to improve the political participation of the public express their needs,interests,they could easily agree on some common interest demands,combined with the party's social integration and absorption capacity decreased in recent years,which contributed to a large number of professional interest group formation and development.Secondly,a participatory political culture and an open political system are gradually taking shape.With the transformation of the society,western civil society has taken shape,and citizens gradually have more rights to participate in the decision-making process of public affairs in some public fields originally monopolized by the government,including the right to express interests,the right to synthesize interests and the right to influence the final decision-making,and the fields and affairs of such rights are increasingly expanded.The enhancement of citizen participation ability and the achievement of participation encourage people to enhance a common interest by joining a group.Participatory cultures,as almond says,are easier to mobilize,and cultural secularization opens up the possibility of action in ways that have never been tried before.An open political system has multiple channels of interest expression,integration,public policy formulation and implementation,and other political operation processes.It abandons the traditional top-down closed political operation model,and citizens can systematically influence the decision-making of political parties and governments through interest groups,which is conducive to enhancing their influence.Third,the high degree of economic development and social and political resources can be allocated.Neither interests itself or raising campaign funds for party organization activities,increase lobby chips requires huge capital support,many interest groups and the background is a multinational enterprise group,established on the basis of the they control or monopoly in some areas of resource,the information revolution brought about by the economic highly developed provides economic support for the formation of interest groups.As interest groups provide political parties with campaign capital and votes,whether they can directly influence the decision-making of political parties and governments becomes a decisive factor for whether they can get a return on their investment.The voting mechanism implemented by the current representative democracy facilitates the political parties or governments to intentionally carry out a public policy to benefit specific groups of people.Therefore,more and more people join specific interest groups to promote their personal interests.Finally,the instigation of political elites such as party or government leaders.As part of its strategy for civil society,political parties seek to place party members in interest groups and encourage interest group members to represent political parties.Interest groups or channels of interest expression are usually established at the beginning when the government needs to expand group participation.For example,the United States federal government needs a channel to provide intelligence and farm assistance,so it directly encourages the creation of farm communities.Party elites also play an important role in encouraging the establishment of organized interest groups,and they hope to continue to maintain contact with interest group members for support.Of course,the"decline"of party politics leads to the weakening of party identity,the lack of social foundation and the decline of party prestige,etc.,and the political system is faced with the political crisis caused by the defect of party functions,which is just a perfect opportunity for interest groups to rise.Therefore,since the 1970s and 1980s,western interest groups have emerged in the whole political system and taken on a spiraling development trend,affecting the development of the whole democratic politics.To some extent,the existence and development of interest groups reflect the victory of pluralism under the democratic political system,which is also the original intention of the designers of democratic politics.Democracy,as Madison advocated,should be achieved not by restricting the freedom of private interests to lobby,but by"controlling"one-sided"outcomes".Different interest groups freely participate in the decision-making process,because different interest demands naturally conflict,no interest group will become too strong,and the government ACTS as the integrator of competing interests.The existence of interest groups and the activity of their lobbying activities enable the majority of public interest demands to be effectively absorbed and reflected to varying degrees in the political parties'election and administrative programs.The bargaining between interest groups and political parties leads to a compromise,which is conducive to the balance of interests in the political market.Of course,the active interest groups bring multiple troubles to the democratic system.First of all,interest groups are organized by certain interest tendencies or value appeals.The policies they advocate are out of the interests of group members themselves.Due to the exclusiveness of interests,they are likely to damage public interests and produce irreconcilable interest conflicts.Secondly,the emergence of various interest groups has formed highly fragmented interest demands and divided ideology,which further increases the difficulty for political parties to integrate social resources and accelerates the decline of party politics.The direct impact of interest groups on the political system results in political instability and policy variability to a certain extent.Finally,it is difficult to achieve a theoretical equilibrium state due to the great disparity between the interest groups.A few powerful special interest groups occupy the dominant position,manipulate the public preferences and the actions of officials,and monopolize the rights close to public power departments such as political parties and governments.Most public interest groups are unable to implement substantial pressure on political parties and governments,and have little influence on public decision-making.Olsen once pointed out that the larger the interest group is,the more likely it is to be organized and funded by several major group members.As they pay higher costs,they will pursue their own interests in order to obtain returns in the group's actions,and seldom make efforts to promote the public interest.However,some group members may consider"free riding"to obtain their own interests,which makes the interest expression and collective action of interest groups fall into the network environment.On the whole,the rise of interest groups in western democracies,on the one hand,is conducive to the organization of multiple social interest demands and the promotion of scientific and democratic public decision-making;On the other hand,interest groups and political parties have formed a situation of competition and cooperation in the political process.It provides campaign funds and votes for political parties.After winning the election,political parties channel the interests of interest groups through public policies.The participation of interest groups in politics intensifies the corruption of political parties and governments,weakens their authority and reduces the efficiency of governance.In particular,special interest groups encroach on the public interest or even the national interest.

 

　　Although the political parties and interest groups in the current western democratic political system have coexisted as two powerful forces,and they are closely related in the process of political operation,they still have many obvious differences.Interest groups,as a kind of organizations trying to influence the government,mainly help the political parties in line with the interests of the group to win by sponsoring candidates,so as to influence the formulation and implementation of public policies of the political parties and the government.They do not attempt to become part of the government themselves.For example,large interest groups in the United States all have political action committees,which have the legal power to raise funds from interest group members,shareholders and employees.Political action committees,while providing money and organizing votes for politicians,exert pressure to persuade officials to pursue the public policies that interest groups desire.In addition to integrating social resources and constructing ideology,political parties also manage society by nominating candidates and forming governments.The differences between political parties and interest groups determine that they can exist together and achieve functional complementarity and cooperation.However,there are also many interest groups that function as political parties.For example,they all need to seek support from social resources and absorb public interest demands.In these respects,political party and interest group show competition posture.Therefore,generally speaking,there is a game of competition between the parties and interest groups.Its main performance has.

 

　　Competition and cooperation between political parties and interest groups in social integration.Generally speaking,interest groups play the function of interest expression and represent the interests of a single group,while political parties gather multiple interest expressions and represent the combination of multiple interests.This is because an effective political party should be a force that can bring together the interests of various groups and integrate them into political power.When a political party is in a cycle of political decline and its social base is weakened,the support of interest groups can help a party gain legitimacy and win votes.Although both political parties and interest groups have the function of absorbing interest appeals and social integration,when political parties are weak or divided,interest groups have a greater influence and can build a solid and extensive social foundation more than political parties.Since interest groups tend to pay more attention to some specific policy issues,and political parties,in order to obtain the majority of votes in the election,must take the common interest demands of the majority as policy issues,and inevitably ignore the interests of the minority.However,the size of interest groups generally does not have specific requirements,as long as groups with common interests are organized and exert pressure on political parties to influence the formulation and implementation of policies,its flexibility is beyond the reach of political parties.When a large number of interest groups are organized and act for their own interests,it means that interest groups integrate most of the limited social resources,and the share that political parties can control is quite limited.It must be made clear that interest groups tend to focus on economic interests and the realization of a specific right,and that the mainstream ideology is usually shaped by political parties,except that a small number of groups with narrow political ideological beliefs form an ideology or a single-issue interest group.Although there are many theories about the decline or even the end of western party politics,to a certain extent,it only means that scholars pay attention to the ability of party politics to assume democratic functions and the strength of party politics,but it does not mean that western party politics as the subject of liberal democracy fades out.Interest groups or coalitions of interest groups have not replaced political parties as tools of popular mobilization.To some extent,political parties and interest groups realize the integration of social resources and the shaping of mainstream ideology respectively,which restrict and depend on each other,which is the original intention of the designers of western political party system.

 

　　The game between political parties and interest groups in the pursuit of political goals.Political parties aim to win votes and take power,while interest groups aim to maximise policy gains.The integration of social interests by political parties includes the integration of interests of the public and interest groups,while interest groups subordinate to the political system of political parties mainly absorb public interest demands.Political parties must dilute the value position of some issues in the process of electioneering policy agenda refining on the basis of comprehensive social interest appeal so as to build a relatively vague alliance with broad social foundation.The problem is that interest groups tend to be exclusive,their interests are often at the expense of other groups and even social public interests as the premise,political parties to absorb in a particular interest group,means losing,jeopardizing the interests of the community support,if so what interests integration and consolidation,how to establish the common interests of the broadest basis be party campaign strategy.The most central advantage of interest groups over political parties is that they provide a direct,focused,unadulterated way for people to engage in politics on issues of great personal concern.In a competitive party system,interest groups,when seeking policy support,will also choose the party closest to their policy propositions for the consideration of costs and benefits,and support them with votes and funds.It is worth noting that some interest groups often maintain close ties with several political parties because they do not want to put all their eggs in one basket.Especially in western democracies,where parliamentary seats are often divided among several parties,it is wise to obtain a majority.Similarly,political parties also adjust their political programs and positions according to the activities and interest demands of interest groups.The behaviors of one party are often based on the behaviors or positions of the other party,which forms a typical game of competition and cooperation.Although political parties and interest groups have different political goals,but in the goal to pursue and there is a broad consensus and cooperation basis,such as demand party won the election for interest groups influence the ways,because the party's goal is to attract as much as possible,have a certain size and strength of group,to build a coalition of the election.